Humboldt Penguin Humboldt Penguin Needs for Having a Baby

Geographic Range

Humboldt penguins are owned to the subtropical Pacific coasts of Chile and Peru. Their range extends from Isla Foca in the north to Punihuil Islands to the s. This surface area is located adjacent to the Humboldt Current, a large oceanic upwelling characterized by cold, nutrient rich waters. (Culik, 2001)

• neotropical
  • native

Habitat

Humboldt penguins spend a majority of their fourth dimension in coastal waters. The corporeality of time the spend in water is associated with breeding condition. Not-convenance penguins spend an average of 60.0 hours in the h2o before returning to land with the maximum trip lasting 163.3 hours. Breeding penguins spend less time offshore with trips averaging 22.4 hours with a maximum of 35.three hours. (Taylor, et al., 2004)

Every bit is the case for many penguins, Humboldt penguins must come aground to rest, breed, and raise young. The Pacific coast of Southward America is characteristically rocky and is also known for having large deposits of guano. Penguins will choose such sites for nesting only volition occasionally use a cavern along the shore. (Paredes and Zavalaga, 2001)

• temperate
• tropical
• terrestrial
• saltwater or marine

• coastal

• Range depth

  61.8 (high) m

  202.76 (high) ft

• Average depth

  10.1 m

  33.14 ft

Physical Description

Humboldt penguins are medium-sized, ranging from 66 to 70 cm in length and weighing from 4 to v kg. They have blackish-gray feathers on the back and white feathers on the breast. Humboldt penguins have black heads with white stripes under the optics that wrap around the side of their caput and connect at the chin forming a horseshoe shape. Distinctive of the species is a solid, black breast band that helps to differentiate them from Magellanic penguins (Spheniscus magellanicus). The solid chest band besides helps in distinguishing adults from juveniles who have a darker head. (Berger, 2004)

• endothermic
• homoiothermic
• bilateral symmetry

• male person larger

• Boilerplate mass

  4 to 5 kg

  lb

• Average length

  66 to 70 cm

  in

Reproduction

Humboldt penguins are monogamous and recognize their partner in the colony through distinct vocal cues. Although they are typically monogamous, in rare cases the female will solicit some other male person for mating. Extra-pair mating is always initiated by the female simply the costs and benefits of this strategy are not well understood. (Schwarts, et al., 199)

Another rare aspect of the mating of Humboldt penguins is that males may start usurps, defined as an unpaired male that invades the nest of an established pair. While this strategy is used to gain mates, there is risk of injury and even death of the invader. A situation that might make usurpation favorable includes periods of low nutrient availability that are characteristic of El Niño events. Inquiry has shown that females are disproportionately effected at these times leading to male-biased sex ratios. With more males losing mates to mortality, the rate of usurpation may increase. (Taylor, et al., 2001)

• monogamous

Humboldt penguins can reproduce nearly all twelvemonth long due to the relatively warm onshore climate in the region they occupy. Breeding takes identify betwixt March and December with peaks in April and August to September. Before reproduction occurs penguins volition molt. During molting, penguins stay on state and are in a fasting state for about ii weeks. They will then go to ocean to feed before returning to the breeding grounds to mate. (Paredes, et al., 2002)

Humboldt penguins use covered nests that protect their eggs from both intense solar radiation, and aerial and terrestrial predators. Oftentimes penguins use the thick deposits of guano found on the shore line to create their nests. They create burrows and deposit their eggs safely inside. Females lay two, similar sized eggs per clutch. Afterward the eggs have been laid the male and female will share the duty of attending to the nest for the full extent of the approximately half dozen calendar week incubation period. (Paredes and Zavalaga, 2001)

• iteroparous
• seasonal breeding
• gonochoric/gonochoristic/dioecious (sexes split)
• sexual
• oviparous

• Breeding interval

  Many Humboldt penguins breed successfully twice a twelvemonth

• Breeding flavour

  Humboldt penguins breed from March to December with peaks in April and August to September

• Average eggs per season

  2

• Range fourth dimension to hatching

  forty to 42 days

• Range fledging historic period

  10 to 12 weeks

• Range age at sexual or reproductive maturity (female)

  2 (depression) years

• Average historic period at sexual or reproductive maturity (female)

  3 years

• Range historic period at sexual or reproductive maturity (male)

  ii to 3 years

As mentioned previously, both sexes watch and protect the nest before hatching occurs. After the eggs have hatched, the parents share in the responsibility of feeding the chicks. Adults must provide plenty food at frequent intervals for chick survival but his must be balanced with self maintenance. This remainder is met by switching betwixt curt foraging trips in order to feed the chicks and longer trips for maintenance. Taylor et al. (2001) showed that penguins raising chicks generally forage during the day and make short, shallow dives. In one case molting occurs, which marks the offset of the juvenile stage, offspring will go into the ocean to forage on their ain and are fully independent. (Taylor, et al., 2004)

• pre-hatching/birth
  • provisioning
    • male
    • female
  • protecting
    • male
    • female person
• pre-weaning/fledging
  • provisioning
    • male person
    • female
  • protecting
    • male person
    • female
• pre-independence
  • provisioning
    • male person
    • female
  • protecting
    • male person
    • female

Lifespan/Longevity

There is little known most the lifespan of Humboldt penguins. Information from the wild is lacking, only Body of water World reports that penguins live between xv to xx years in their facilities. Information technology is thought that captive penguins will alive longer than wild penguins because captive penguins exercise not deal with predators and also receive a healthy, balanced nutrition. It is also noted that less than one-half of chicks make information technology past their outset yr of life.

• Typical lifespan
  Status: captivity

  xv to 20 years

Beliefs

Humboldt penguins typically molt in January. Studies accept shown that this beliefs is correlated with a fasten in thyroid hormones at the same time that sexual practice steroid hormones are at their lowest concentration. Molting is the process of replacing erstwhile worn feathers with new ones. For penguins this is extremely important equally they need their feathers for insulation and to seal h2o out. Over the two week menstruation that molting is occurring, the penguins will fast because they are unable to enter the water to provender. (Ellenberg, et al., 2006; Otsuka, et al., 2003)

Humboldt penguins have been found to exist extremely sensitive to man presence. Their breeding success was significantly reduced at sites that were highly visited past tourists. Heart rate drastically increased with the presence of a human at 150 meters away and it took 30 minutes for the penguin to recover. This sensitivity to humans may be due to a history of being hunted. (Ellenberg, et al., 2006; Otsuka, et al., 2003)

Humboldt penguins live in large colonies and are considered highly social except during foraging. Foraging behavior is dependent on whether the adult penguin is raising chicks or non. Penguins not raising fledglings are able to explore different foraging habitats that are farther abroad considering they are able to be away from the colony for longer periods of time. Penguins raising fledglings rarely take overnight foraging trips and generally exhibit a shallower, shorter dive. (Taylor, et al., 2004)

• natatorial
• diurnal
• motile
• sedentary
• colonial

Home Range

Satellite monitoring of gratuitous ranging Humboldt penguins shows has found that 90% of all satellite locations came from a range of 35 km around their convenance ground with maximum distances of 100 km. These values increase during El Nino events. Penguins volition abandon their nests and may forage up to 895 km offshore. These results contradicts an earlier hypothesis that Humboldt penguins are primarily sedentary and remain close to the convenance ground year round. (Culik and Luna-Jorquera, 1997; Culik, 2001)

Communication and Perception

Individuals have vocalizations that are unique and distinguishable by mates. Humboldt penguins display three calls which include the contact call, the display phone call, and a threat call. In recent studies, Humboldt penguins have been establish to take an astute sense of smell. Odors create learned preferences to parental smells in chicks and are idea to play a role in social and family interactions. It is hypothesized that because of natal philopatry, selection favors kin recognition in order to avert incest with siblings that were built-in in dissimilar years and are therefore unfamiliar. Humboldt penguins explore unfamiliar scents but will render to a familiar scent and prefer it. Therefore, prior association of a scent likely allows for recognition of nest-mates or colony mates. Familiar scents may as well be associated with locating burrows at night. (Coffin, et al., 2011)

Humboldt penguins are believed to apply the aforementioned visual mechanisms equally other penguins. They cannot perceive prey under low light conditions. They accommodate by decreasing the radius of curvature of the anterior surface of their lens. They tin see equally as well in the air and the h2o. The loss of corneal power nether water is mitigated by having a flat cornea and a spherical lens. This is likewise aided past adaptation. It was once believed that penguins were myopic in air merely show from current studies contradicts this. (Sivak, et al., 1987)

• visual
• tactile
• acoustic

• visual
• tactile
• audio-visual
• chemical

Food Habits

Humboldt penguins specialize on pelagic schools of fish. Penguins located in the northern regions of Chile ate nigh exclusively garfish those found in primal Chile preferred anchovy, pilchard, and squid. The difference is believed to be due to the availability of the dissimilar casualty types in the particular foraging regions. Additionally, Humboldt penguins consume Araucanian herring and silversides. (Hennicke and Culik, 2005)

• carnivore
  • piscivore

• fish

Predation

In the ocean, Humboldt penguins are predated on by sharks, fur seals, and body of water lions. On land, the nests are preyed on by feral cats, dogs, foxes, snakes, and rodents. In some cases, these predators attack a juvenile or developed Humboldt penguin if it is of smaller size. Insular penguins lack anti-predatory tactics to rats and feral cats due to their recent introduction of these predators on islands past humans. To a lesser extent, gulls are too known to predate nests. Humboldt penguins utilize guano to create burrows for their eggs that help to reduce exposure to predators. The large colonies that Humboldt penguins live in too provide defense by number. In the h2o, their principal defense is their ability to swim quickly and with agility. (Simeone and Guillermo, 2012)

• Known Predators

  • sea lions (Otaria)
  • sharks (Chondrichthyes)
  • fur seals (Arctocephalus)
  • feral cats (Felis catus)
  • domestic dogs (Canis lupus familiaris)
  • foxes (Vulpes)
  • snakes (Serpentes)
  • rodents (Rodentia)

Ecosystem Roles

Humboldt penguins are one of the main predators in the Humboldt electric current arrangement. (Herling, et al., 2005)

Economical Importance for Humans: Positive

Humboldt penguins were considered an important source of guano. Guano is a rich fertilizer and a major source of income for the Peruvian government. (Paredes, et al., 2003)

In contempo years, ecotourism has begun to focus on the species. Withal, Humboldt penguins are shy and acutely sensitive to human being presence. In 2010, regulations were established to assist with breeding success while maintaining tourist activity. (Ellenberg, et al., 2006)

• ecotourism
• produces fertilizer

Economic Importance for Humans: Negative

There are no known adverse effects on humans.

Conservation Condition

The major factors contributing to decreases in Humboldt penguin populations are fishery activity and human disturbances. Penguins are at risk of entanglement and drowning in angling nets while fisheries threaten food availability. Guano extraction has also reduced the convenance success of penguins. Guano reserves are being formed in order to reduce this threat to population viability. (Paredes, et al., 2003)

• IUCN Cerise List

  Vulnerable
  More than information

• IUCN Blood-red Listing

  Vulnerable
  More data

• US Federal List

  Threatened

• CITES

  Appendix I

Contributors

Heidi Nissley (writer), Indiana University-Purdue University Fort Wayne, Mark Jordan (editor), Indiana Academy-Purdue Academy Fort Wayne, Tanya Dewey (editor), University of Michigan-Ann Arbor.

Glossary

Neotropical

living in the southern part of the New World. In other words, Central and Southward America.

audio-visual

uses audio to communicate

bilateral symmetry

having body symmetry such that the animal can be divided in one aeroplane into two mirror-paradigm halves. Animals with bilateral symmetry accept dorsal and ventral sides, as well as anterior and posterior ends. Synapomorphy of the Bilateria.

carnivore

an animal that mainly eats meat

chemic

uses smells or other chemicals to communicate

littoral

the nearshore aquatic habitats almost a coast, or shoreline.

colonial

used loosely to describe whatever grouping of organisms living together or in close proximity to each other - for instance nesting shorebirds that alive in large colonies. More than specifically refers to a group of organisms in which members act as specialized subunits (a continuous, modular society) - as in clonal organisms.

diurnal

1. active during the day, 2. lasting for i day.

ecotourism

humans do good economically by promoting tourism that focuses on the appreciation of natural areas or animals. Ecotourism implies that at that place are existing programs that profit from the appreciation of natural areas or animals.

endothermic

animals that use metabolically generated oestrus to regulate body temperature independently of ambience temperature. Endothermy is a synapomorphy of the Mammalia, although it may have arisen in a (at present extinct) synapsid ancestor; the fossil record does not distinguish these possibilities. Convergent in birds.

iteroparous

offspring are produced in more than i group (litters, clutches, etc.) and beyond multiple seasons (or other periods hospitable to reproduction). Iteroparous animals must, by definition, survive over multiple seasons (or periodic status changes).

monogamous

Having 1 mate at a fourth dimension.

motile

having the capacity to move from one place to another.

natatorial

specialized for pond

native range

the area in which the animal is naturally constitute, the region in which it is endemic.

oviparous

reproduction in which eggs are released by the female; evolution of offspring occurs outside the female parent's trunk.

piscivore

an animal that mainly eats fish

saltwater or marine

mainly lives in oceans, seas, or other bodies of common salt water.

seasonal breeding

breeding is bars to a detail season

sedentary

remains in the same area

sexual

reproduction that includes combining the genetic contribution of ii individuals, a male and a female

tactile

uses touch to communicate

temperate

that region of the Earth between 23.5 degrees North and lx degrees North (between the Tropic of Cancer and the Arctic Circle) and between 23.5 degrees Southward and 60 degrees South (betwixt the Tropic of Capricorn and the Antarctic Circle).

terrestrial

Living on the ground.

threatened

The term is used in the 1994 IUCN Red List of Threatened Animals to refer collectively to species categorized equally Endangered (East), Vulnerable (5), Rare (R), Indeterminate (I), or Insufficiently Known (G) and in the 1996 IUCN Red Listing of Threatened Animals to refer collectively to species categorized as Critically Endangered (CR), Endangered (EN), or Vulnerable (VU).

tropical

the region of the earth that surrounds the equator, from 23.5 degrees n to 23.v degrees s.

visual

uses sight to communicate

References

Berger, C. 2004. Sphenisciformes (Penguins). Pp. 147-158 in E Hutchins, A Evans, J Jackson, D Kleiman, J Murphy, D Thoney, eds. Grzimek's Animal Life Encyclopedia, Vol. 8, 22 Edition. Detroit, Michigan: Gale Virtual Reference Library.

Bury, H., J. Watters, J. Mateo. 2011. Odor-Based Recognition of Familiar and Related Conspecifics: A First Examination Conducted on Convict Humboldt Penguins. PLoS 1, 6.

Constantini, Five., A. Guaricci, P. Laricchuita, F. Rausa, G. Lacalandra. 2008. DNA Sexing in Humboldt Penguins from Feather Samples. Creature Reproduction Science, 106: 162-167.

Culik, B. 2001. Finding Food in the Open Ocean: Foraging Strategies in Humboldt Penguins. Zoology, 104: 327-338.

Culik, B., G. Luna-Jorquera. 1997. Satellite Tracking of Humboldt Penguins Spheniscus humboldti in Northern Chile. Marine Biology, 128: 547-556.

Ellenberg, U., T. Mattern, P. Seddon, M. Luna Jorguera. 2006. Physicological and Reproductive Consequences of Human Disturbances in Humboldt Penguins: The Need for Species-Specific Visitor Management. Biological Conservation, 133: 95-106.

Hennicke, J., B. Culik. 2005. Foraging Performance and Reproductive Success of Humboldt Penguins in Relation to Prey Availability. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 296: 173-181.

Herling, C., B. Culik, J. Hennicke. 2005. Diet of the Humboldt Penguin in Northern and Southern Chile. Marine Biological science, 147: 13-25.

Otsuka, R., T. Machida, 1000. Wada. 2003. Hormonal Correlations at Transition from Reproduction to Molting in an Annual Life Bike of Humboldt Penguins. General and Comparative Endocrinology, 135: 175-185.

Paredes, R., C. Zavalaga. 2001. Nesting Sites and Nest Types as Important Factors for the Conservation of Humboldt Penguins. Biological Conservation, 100: 190-205.

Paredes, R., C. Zavalaga, One thousand. Battistini, P. Majluf, P. McGill. 2003. Status of the Humboldt Penguin in Peru, 199-2000. Waterbird Order, 26: 129-138.

Paredes, R., C. Zavalaga, D. Boness. 2002. Patterns of Egg Laying and Breeding Success in Humboldt Penguins at Punta San Juan, Peru. The Auk, 119: 244-250.

Schwarts, Thou., D. Boness, C. Schaeff, P. Majluf, E. Perry. 199. Female-Solicited Extrapair atings in Humboldt Penguins Fail to Produce Extrapair Fertilizations. Behavioral Ecology, x: 242-250.

Simeone, A., M. Bernal. 2000. Effects of Habitat Modification on Convenance Seabirds: A Case Study in Central Chile. Waterbird Order, 23: 449-456.

Simeone, A., L. Guillermo. 2012. Estimating Rat Predation on Humboldt Penguins in Northward-Cardinal Chile. Journal of Ornithology, 153: 1079-1085.

Sivak, J., H. Howland, P. McGill-Harelstad. 1987. Vision of the Humboldt Penguin in Air and Water. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Serial B, Biological Sciences, 229: 467-472.

Taylor, S., K. Leonard, D. Boness, P. Majluf. 2004. Humboldt Penguins Alter Their Foraging Beliefs Following Convenance Failure. Marine Orinthology, 32: 63-67.

Taylor, Due south., One thousand. Leonard, D. Boness. 2001. Aggressive Nest Intrusions past Male Humboldt Penguins. The Condor, 103: 162-165.

Wallace, R., J. Dubach, G. Margaret, N. Keuler, E. Diebold, k. Grzybowski, A. Teare, M. Willis. 2008. Morphometric Determination of Gender in Developed Humboldt Penguins. Waterbird Club, 31: 448-453.

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Source: https://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Spheniscus_humboldti/

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